It is in the nascent development of an increasing sizeable Muslim population throughout Europe that Tariq Ramadan offers his diagnostic thesis on European-Muslim identity. However, this book is more than just a study of how Muslims contextualise their faith and culture within the evolving geo-political federalism of the new Europe. Ramadan has not sought to isolate or disconnect the European Muslims from the rest of the Umma - he has instead offered an essential global overview that helps in understanding the underlying influences and tensions upon this new community.

Jørgen Nielsen's foreword makes mention of early assumptions of 'assimilation' and of the first generation of Muslim immigrants becoming 'Europeanised' commenting that these were, 'simplistic conclusions' (p.xi). Ramadan states that, 'It (usul al-fiqh) makes clear that Islam allows us to consider its intrinsic possibilities for adaptation to space and time; that is to say, to accept and make ours what, within every civilisation or culture, does not contradict a clearly stipulated juridical prescription.' (p.65), and he further comments on Islam's comprehensiveness thus, 'A religion based on one major pillar (that is the Oneness of God, Tawhid), founded on a few global rulings and ready to accept and incorporate cultures, traditions and customs in their rich and immense diversity.' (p.65).

Nielsen mentions that some observers appear to suggest that the problem of constructing an Islamic-European identity is primarily a theological contention with 'modernity'. They advocate a response echoing that of modern Christian theologians and suggest that Muslims should undertake a 'theological reformation'. Nielsen adds, 'This reformation would have to start with a rethinking of the nature of revelation and thence the understanding of the revealed text.' (p.xiii). Observers who would have Muslims 'rethink' the nature of revelation and revealed text have fundamentally failed to understand the concept of God, Prophethood and Divine revelation in Islam.

The impact of 'modernity' on Christianity, decentralising its moral, social and political influence upon European civilisation is a direct result of Christian 'theological reformation' and the rethinking and redefining of the revealed text. Hence, secularisation, a consequence of modernity, has also led to the religious de-traditionalisation of European citizens. This phenomenon is noted by Ramadan who comments, 'Europeans are no longer used to a public manifestation of religious presence in their day-to-day lives and they themselves are, in the great majority, either not practising much or not practising at all.' (pp.182-83). As a phenomenon essentially in the Christian world modernity has not affected the Muslim world to the same extent and its repercussions have not been so severe.

Ramadan's work explores the problems of 'western' aculturisation by Muslims who understand Islam only from within a dominant Islamic society and therefore, cannot appreciate a functioning 'minority status' Islamic way of life. Ramadan contextualises the predicament of Europe's Muslims, vis-à-vis belonging and allegiance, by offering a concise history of the development of Islamic jurisprudence in relation to Muslim minorities living under non-Muslim rule. The author has delved deeply into the meanings of the Qur'an emphasising Islam's essential universal or 'global' teachings and individual and collective responsibilities incumbent upon all Muslims. He succinctly describes the dynamics of the Islamic way of life, stating, 'the Qur'anic teaching is clear: to believe is to act and hence Islam, more than a simple codified link between the Believer and God (a Religion in its strict and etymological meaning is "to link"), is a concept and a way of life.' (p.20). He objectively studies the scholastic divergence amongst the 'ulama' and traces the origins back to the Prophet and his Companions, revealing, even in those times, a multi-layered understanding and interpretation amongst the first tangible Muslim community in Madina.

A historical development of Islamic Sciences, their typology and classification, are well documented with the inclusion of a very useful chronological chart (p.40) and extended glossary of the Arabic terms used (pp.257-64). Explaining the evolution of fiqh and the various madhahib, Ramadan shows how such diversity of interpretation and the crucial implementation of Ijtihad (analogical opinion) contributes to a 'space and time' contextualisation of the shari'a which, whilst global in its essence and fundamentals, is not monolithic in its specific practice or cultural manifestations. Islam's 'space and time' adaptability via ijtihad is at the core of Ramadan's thesis in forging a European Islamic identity. The author lays the charge that taqlid has led to a binary perception of the world divided into Muslim (dar al-Islam) and non-Muslim (dar al-Harb) spaces. He states, 'Muslims have followed the path of blind imitation (taqlid) without being able to find again the genuine and dynamic Message contained in the Qur'an and Sunna.' (p.42).

This idea challenges the traditionally held Muslim views of belonging and allegiance based on the binary perception. Centuries of the Islamic 'legacy' coupled with the recent history of western colonialism and domination of Muslim lands has increased the polarisation between Muslim and non-Muslim spaces. Yet beyond the legacy back to the foundations of the Sunna, we find many instances of Muslims living not only in non-Muslim space, but also perhaps more importantly, under non-Muslim rule and legislation. Ramadan cites the examples of the Companions exiled in Abbysinia and Mus'ab ibn 'Umayr in Madina. The traditional categories of fiqh that permit abode in a non-Muslim country are, according to the author, purely situational. As he says in reference to these rulings, 'To apply them to contemporary reality as they were thought out ten centuries ago appears to be a methodological mistake.' (p.126).

Beyond the exilic and diasporic experience of the first generation of Muslims to Europe in the later half of the last century, Ramadan identifies a new emerging community with a developing European character and culture in which he says, 'Added to this is the fact that there are numerous converts to Islam who, along with the young generations of Muslims who have now become European, are at home in Europe: they are European citizens; European and Muslim.' (p.120). Whilst the author has intelligently constructed his argument for the validity of such an existing community from the principles of Islamic jurisprudence and the very complex problematic geo-politics of a multi-cultural, multi-faith, pluralistic European nation-state, I feel he has perhaps left two areas largely unexplored.

The first area is the concept of what is a European. Within the confines of a politically manufactured and divisive socially engineered modern Europe, what and whose definition of 'European' are we using? Amongst the western European countries, which make up the federal Europe, some countries are more 'European' than others. To quote the author, 'The current situation, as well as the cultural and legal background of the various European countries is very often different, hence it is difficult to generalise about the Muslim presence in every society.'(p.135). If by 'Europe' we mean the new political Western Europe, then the historical situation of Muslims there described by the author is relatively true. If however we are referring to the geographical continent of Europe then the writer has omitted at least five hundred years of Muslim history and civilisation.

There is much to be learnt about Muslim identity and 'Europeanised' Islam from the millions of Muslims living in Eastern Europe. This point may seem obvious yet is without mention in the book. Western Europe has also seen Muslim communities before the influx of ex-colonial immigrant workers such as the Liverpool community circa 1890-1930. These micro communities were never allowed to flourish and whilst the majority members were indigenous, their belonging and allegiance was brought under scrutiny through 'witch hunts' when Europe fought the Ottoman Empire. A reference to, and study of, these early Muslim communities may have yielded important answers particularly to the writer's hypothetical question: ' What are they first: Muslim or British, French, German or Spanish? In such a situation, the point is plain: are the so-called European-Muslims trustworthy?' (p.162). The second area where clarification and an extended debate may have provided a greater understanding of the thesis, is the apparent legitimisation of the nation-state via citizenship.

The creation of nation-states by modern Europe is a major secular imposition, which has further fractionalised and divided humanity. Nationalism has often given rise to racial extremism culminating in the horrific world wars of the last century amongst others. The primary function of a nation-state in Europe seems to be to hold sacrosanct the rights of the individual over that of the majority. As such, it is the height of European 'enlightenment' and a visible manifestation of 'turn to the self'. Perhaps a deconstruction of and inquiry into the concept of the modern nation-state may have helped to develop a more balanced critique rather than a seemingly enthusiastic appraisal.

On the issues of citizenship, nationality and religion, Ramadan seems to fully support the idea of nation-state citizenship; he formulates his justification around the principle of an agreed treaty between the state and the individual taking an oath. In defence of this opinion Ramadan states, 'there is absolutely no contradiction in that matter between their citizenship and their being Muslims: the law allows them to act in this sense, their faith commands it.' (p.175). Where and when a conflict of interest occurs between the individuals' Muslim identity and national duty, Ramadan refers to an interpretation in secular legislation commonly called, 'the clause of conscience'. He suggests when religious beliefs and national identity conflict, one should become a passive non- participant as illustrated by 'conscientious objectors' in times of war. He writes, 'thus, concerning western legislation, the scope of permission is wider than that of compulsion.

Nevertheless, it could happen that citizenship would lead someone to face or feel a great tension between their faith, their conscience, and the duties related to their nationality.' (p.175). In Eastern Europe, Muslims had lived for centuries as fully integrated citizens of their respective countries, most of which in recent history were annexed to the former Soviet Union. When Soviet power under communism collapsed so did many of its union states: chaos and civil war ensued. As a result national identity became the focus of these newly forming and reforming nations, and ethnicity, race and religion became the 'acid test' used in order to 'scapegoat' and then 'ethnically cleanse' and systematically massacre Eastern European Muslims. Could such a future scenario occur in a demising capitalist federal Western Europe? This issue is highly sensitive, and very controversial. The question begs to be answered: how far can one be a European Muslim? No doubt Ramadan's work is very engaging and scholarly and many of the issues raised are part of the on-going debate of Muslim-European identity. Perhaps the problem with such a theoretical framework is often that the real practical issues are left unanswered by the hypothesis.